术:管理臣下的技艺
申不害在韩昭侯(公元前362-前333年在位)之世地位显赫(史书记载,昭侯曾拜他为相)(Creel 1974:21-24)。根据一些史书的记载及韩非的转述,政治术是申不害学说的核心特色:
术者,因任而授官,循名而责实,操杀生之柄,课群臣之能者也,此人主之所执也。(《韩非子·定法》)
... the means whereby to create posts according to responsibilities,hold actual services accountable according to official titles,exercise the power over life and death,and examine the officials’ abilities. It is what the lord of men has in his grip.(Han Fei Zi,Chapter 43,“Deciding between Two Legalistic Doctrines”,trans. Liao 1939,vol. 2:212)
申不害认为,鉴于春秋战国时期很多君主沦为臣下的傀儡,君主能够完全掌控臣下这一点至关重要。政治术可以实现这个可欲的结果,但不是通过重新肯定君主或圣王之地位,而是通过建立一种能够客观度量臣下的能力与成绩的体系。申不害的方案是创立一套限制官员权力的机制。这样一来,申不害的君主有点像霍布斯的君主,他是社会契约的守卫者,但唯其一人不受契约所规定的法令的制约。允许君主的权力不受限制,就此而言申不害的理论过于简单,但是,从另一方面来看,它却洋溢着现代气息:建立制度基础,不再依靠人际关系或世袭官爵。因此,史华慈认为,申不害的官吏制度理论是“世界社会思想史上极其重大的事件”(1985:336)。当然,申不害提出的行政管理组织与当代自由社会中的行政管理组织之间存在很多重要差异。最突出的一点在于,社会-政治稳定与责任只是申不害制度改革的间接目标,维护君主权威才是他的最高宗旨。申不害对官僚极不信任是有理由的(Creel 1974:61),他特别强调内敌的危害性:
今人君之所以高为城郭而谨门闾之闭者,为寇戎盗贼之至也。今夫弑君而取国者,非必逾城郭之险而犯门闾之闭也,蔽君之明,塞君之听,夺之政而专其令,有其民而取其国矣。(《申不害残篇》)
The reason why a ruler builds lofty inner walls and outer walls,and looks carefully to the barring of doors and gates,is to prepare against the coming of invaders and bandits. But one who murders the ruler and takes his state does not necessarily force his way in by climbing over difficult walls and battering in barred doors and gates. He may be one of the ruler’s own ministers,who gradually limits what the ruler is permitted to see and restricts what he is allowed to hear,until finally the minister seizes his government and monopolizes his power to command,possessing his people and taking his state.(Shen Pu-hai Fragments,trans. Creel 1974:61,344)